The Environment : OBJECTIVES,ROLE AND PURPOSE OF ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Environmental institutions are organisations or systems set up by group of people or nations whose main purpose is to provide guidelines on environmental management and conservation. It is important to understand the two key terms environment and institutions. Environment refers to and immediate area surrounding a particular setting or global atmosphere (Ostrom, 2008). According to Keohane,et al (1993;4) in Madland (2005) institutions can be understood as ‘persistent and connected sets of rules and practices that prescribe behavioural roles, constrain activity and shape expectations’. They may be in form of bureaucratic organizations, regims or conventions (informal practices).The term can therefore be used to refer to organizations and set of rules, codified in conventions and protocols that have been formally accepted by nations. Environmental institutions therefore are necessary to formulate policies, ensure implementation, monitor and evaluate the processes and outcomes in order to protect our environment. A number of environmental institutions exist operating at the global, regional, national or local levels. This paper chooses to examine the objectives, roles and purpose of some of the global environmental institutions.

1.1. UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP)

UNEP is one of the leading environmental institutions’ since 1972. It is the United Nations system’s designated entity for addressing environmental issues at the global and regional level and can be referred to as the anchor institution for global environment. It is mandated

to coordinate the development of environmental policy consensus by keeping the global environment under review and bringing emerging issues to the attention of governments and the international community for action. To realize its mandate, UNEP works with many partners, such as UN entities, international organizations, national governments, non-governmental organizations, business, industry, the media and civil society(UNEP,2006).

Objectives of UNEP include

• To promote international cooperation in the field of the environment and recommending appropriate policies.

• To monitor the status of the global environment and gathering and disseminating environmental information.

• To catalyze environmental awareness and action to address major environmental threats among governments, the private sector and civil society.

• To facilitate the coordination of UN activities on matters concerned with the environment, and ensuring, through cooperation, liaison and participation, that their activities take environmental considerations into account.

• To develop regional programmes for environmental sustainability.

• To help, upon request, environment ministries and other environmental authorities, in particular in developing countries and countries with economies in transition, to formulate and implement environmental policies.

• To provide country-level environmental capacity building and technology support.

• To help develop international environmental law, and providing expert advice on the development and use of environmental concepts and instruments.

The role of UNEP includes;

• Assessing global, regional and national environmental conditions and trends.

• Developing international and national environmental agreements and legal instruments.

• Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the environment.

• Integrating economic development and environmental protection.

• Facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sustainable development.

• Encouraging new partnerships and approaches within civil society and the private sector

1.2. CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES (CITES)

CITES was formed in 1975 to ensures that international wildlife trade is based on sustainable use and management of wild and captive populations. It provides a framework for cooperation and collaboration among nations to prevent decline in wild populations of flora and fauna (CITES,2003).

CITES is administered by a Secretariat, located in Geneva, Switzerland. Various committees (called parties) are set up to provide technical and scientific support to member countries. Each Party designates Management and Scientific Authorities to process permits, make legal and scientific findings, and monitor trade.

CITES identifies and enlists endangered species as follows (CITES,2003);

Appendix I which includes species threatened with extinction and allows no commercial trade in these species. Examples include gorillas, sea turtles, most lady slipper orchids, and giant pandas.

Appendix II includes species that, although currently not threatened with extinction, may become so without trade controls. It includes species that resemble other listed species and could be misidentified. Most CITES species are listed in this appendix, including American ginseng, paddlefish, and many corals.

Appendix III includes species that a range country has asked for cooperation from other parties to help them better control international trade in native species. Examples include the walrusand ,Cape stag, beetle.

CITES provides tools to effectively conserve the world’s diverse natural resources. Increased commitment by Parties to treaty implementation has helped control global over-exploitation of wildlife and improved legislation at the national level to enforce CITES. Increased regional communication among Parties has also improved conservation of wildlife across

political borders.

The Parties have adopted a 5-year strategic plan to guide CITES. The plan sets the following goals:

· Enhance the ability of each Party to implement the Convention.

· Strengthen the scientific basis of the decision-making processes.

· Contribute to the reduction and ultimate elimination of illegal trade in wildlife.

· Increase cooperation and conclude strategic alliances with international stakeholders.

· Promote a greater understanding of the Convention.

· Progress toward full global membership.

· Provide the Convention with an improved and secure financial and administrative basis.

1.3. CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS (CMS)

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) was adopted in Bonn ,Germany in1979 but was enforced in 1983. Its main objective is to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme. CMS plays the role of providing a platform for cooperation on the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitat.

CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range (UNEP,2004).

As the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector.
Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix 1 of the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States of many of these species.
Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation are listed on Appendix 2 of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional Agreements.
In this respect, CMS acts as a framework Convention. The Agreements may range from legally binding treaties (called Agreements) to less formal instruments, such as Memoranda of Understanding, and can be adapted to the requirements of particular regions. The development of models tailored according to the conservation needs throughout the migratory range is a unique capacity to CMS (UNEP, 2004).

1.4. THE FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO)

OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations leads international efforts to defeat hunger. It was founded in 1945 and was mandated to ensure that people have regular access to enough and quality food in order to lead active, healthy lives. This was to be achieved through capacity development and raising awareness (OECD/FAO 2007).

Its objectives can therefore be summarised as follows;

· To raise levels of nutrition,

· To improve agricultural productivity

· To better the lives of rural populations and

· To contribute to the growth of the world economy.

Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge providing access to information in print and electronic format. FAO helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices and ensure good nutrition for all.

FAO’s role include :

putting information within reach;
sharing policy expertise;
providing a meeting place for nations;
bringing knowledge to the field.

1.5. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY

Global Environmental facility was established in 1991 to build international cooperation and finance actions aimed at improving global environment. It started as a response to the concern from the international community for global environmental issues.As an independent financial organization, the GEF provides grants to developing countries and countries with economies in transition for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. These projects benefit the global environment, linking local, national, and global environmental challenges and promoting sustainable livelihoods (Nanasta,et al 2005) .

Objectives include;

To build international cooperation.
To finance actions to address critical environmental threat.

By building capacity in recipient countries, and by influencing the behaviour of governments, its Implementing and Executing Agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other institutions and stakeholders, GEF has developed several projects in the recipient countries and proven that encouraging, building and strengthening partnerships is the most effective and cost efficient way to achieve its objective (Nanasta,et al 2005)

1.6. CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION (CLRTA)
The Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution was established in 1979 to address some of the major global environmental problems especially air pollution through scientific collaboration and policy negotiation.

The convention agreed on the following guiding principles (LRTAP,1979).

· To limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air pollution.

· Parties to develop policies and strategies to combat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of information, consultation, research and monitoring.

· Hold consultative meetings between the nations affected by transboundary air pollution.

· Contracting Party to develop the best policies and strategies including air quality management systems and, as part of them, control measures compatible with balanced development, in particular by using the best available technology which is economically feasible and low- and non-waste technology.

· The Contracting Parties, as appropriate to their needs, shall initiate and co-operate in the conduct of research on new technologies and effects of pollutants on human beings.

· Exchange available information on emissions, industrial developments and their impacts and any other issue of concern.

· Implementation and further development of the cooperative programme for the monitoring and evaluation of the long-range transmission of air pollution in Europe.

Currently, the Convention's priority activities include review and possible revision of its most recent protocols, implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information with other regions of the world (LRTAP, 1979).

1.7. INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

IUCN was founded in 1948 as the world’s first global environmental organization .It is a neutral forum for governments, NGOs , scientists, business and local communities to find pragmatic solutions to conservation and development challenges. Main objective of IUCN is to conserve biodiversity by tackling issues to do with climate change, achieving sustainable energy, improving human wellbeing and building a green economy (IUCN, 2012).

To deliver conservation and sustainability at both the global and local level, IUCN builds on its strengths in the following areas:

Setting global standards in their fields, for example, the definitive international standard for species extinction risk
Establishing projects all over the world aimed at the sustainable management of biodiversity and natural resources.
through its member organisations ,influence international environmental conventions, policies and laws

1.8. CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty mainly concerned with conservation of biodiversity. It covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, and culture among others.

The governing body of the CBD is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two years to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans. The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal,

Canada. Its main function is to assist governments in the implementation of the CBD and

its programmes of work, to organize meetings, draft documents, and coordinate with other

International organizations and collect and spread information (CBD,1992) .

Convention on Biological Diversity has three main objectives;

To conserve biodiversity

To encourage sustainable use of biodiversity
To encourage fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

The roles of CBD include;

(i) Developing national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity or adopt for this purpose existing strategies, plans or programmes set out in this convention; and

(ii) Integrating, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.

In order to achieve its aims the Convention encourages each Nation to develop National strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

The CBD favours in-situ conservation of biodiversity wherever possible and therefore encourage the establishment of protected areas, and management of resources, ecosystems and habitats within protected areas. The CBD also encourages the rehabilitation and restoration of degraded areas

Recognising the need to balance the competing demands of existing resource uses and users and the need to conserve biodiversity, CBD recommends a mixture of market forces and participatory methods to encourage biodiversity conservation. It also considers management of the risks associated with modified organisms and introduction of new species which may threaten existing ecosystems, habitats or species(Harris,2004)

The CBD made provision for funding of its recommended activities through the Global Environment Facility. In all the CBD has provided an indication of the strength of political will to conserve biodiversity.

1.9. UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF)

The united Nations Forum on Forests was established in 2000 by the Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC Resolution 2000/35) with the main objective to promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and to strengthen long term political commitment to this course. (NGLS,2009)

The Forum promotes the implementation of internationally agreed actions on forests at the national, regional and global levels, while providing a coherent, transparent and participatory global framework for policy implementation, coordination and development.

In addition to this policy engagement, UNFF maintains a close relationship with organizations focused on implementation activities through the Collaborative Partnership Network on Forests (CPF). The CPF Network is an informal, voluntary mechanism created around the major implementing agencies and convention Secretariats that are active in forest-related work.
In order to achieve its main objective, the following principal functions have been identified for the UNFF:

To facilitate implementation of forest-related agreements and foster a common understanding on sustainable forest management;
To provide for continued policy development and dialogue among Governments, international organizations, including major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 as well as to address forest issues and emerging areas of concern in a holistic, comprehensive and integrated manner,
To enhance cooperation as well as policy and programme coordination on forest-related issues.
To foster international cooperation.
To monitor, assess and report on progress of the above functions and objectives
To strengthen political commitment to the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.
Enhance the contribution of forests to the achievement of the internationally agreed development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals, and to the implementation of the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, bearing in mind the Monterrey Consensus of the International Conference on Financing for Development;
Encourage and assist countries, including those with low forest cover, to develop and implement forest conservation and rehabilitation strategies, increase the area of forests under sustainable management and reduce forest degradation and the loss of forest cover in order to maintain and improve their forest resources with a view to enhancing the benefits of forests to meet present and future needs, in particular the needs of indigenous peoples and local communities whose livelihoods depend on forests;
Strengthen interaction between the United Nations Forum on Forests and relevant regional and sub-regional forest-related mechanisms, institutions and instruments, organizations and processes, with participation of major groups, as identified in Agenda 21 and relevant stakeholders to facilitate enhanced cooperation and effective implementation of sustainable forest management, as well as to contribute to the work of the Forum;
In 2006, at its sixth session, the Forum agreed on four shared Global Objectives on Forests, providing clear guidance on the future work of the international arrangement on forests. The four Global Objectives seek to:

Reverse the loss of forest cover worldwide through sustainable forest management (SFM), including protection, restoration, afforestation and reforestation, and increase efforts to prevent forest degradation;
Enhance forest-based economic, social and environmental benefits, including by improving the livelihoods of forest-dependent people;
Increase significantly the area of sustainably managed forests, including protected forests, and increase the proportion of forest products derived from sustainably managed forests; and
Reverse the decline in official development assistance for sustainable forest management and mobilize significantly-increased new and additional financial resources from all sources for the implementation of SFM.

2.0. THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC)

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an international environmental treaty that was created in 1992, to consider what could be done to limit average global temperature increases and the resulting climate change, and to cope with whatever impacts of climate change.
The treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties (called "protocols") that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases. The main UNFCCC treaty is known as the Kyoto protocal .The objective of the treaty is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system (UNFCCC, 2012).

One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish emissions and removal of greenhouse gases and make an inventory of national greenhouse gases. This was used as the basis to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions. It put great responsibility on developed countries who account for greater emissions (UNFCCC,2012).

The ultimate objective of the Convention therefore is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner." (UNFCCC,2012).

Under the Convention industrialised nations agree to support climate change activities in developing countries by providing financial support for action on climate change and also share technology with them. Grants and loans are provided through the Global Environment Facility.

The convention monitors and evaluates the implementation of the treaty. Industrialized countries have to report regularly on their climate change policies and measures, including issues governed by the Kyoto Protocol .They submit an annual inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries report in more general terms on their actions both to address climate change and to adapt to its impacts (UNFCCC,2012). The convention works toward striking a balance between economic development in developing nations and managing issues of climate change. The Convention takes this into consideration by accepting that the share of greenhouse gas emissions produced by developing nations will grow in the coming years as they continue to develop. Nonetheless, in the interests of fulfilling its ultimate goal, it seeks to help such countries limit emissions in ways that will not hinder their economic progress. One such win-win solution was to emerge later, when the Kyoto Protocol to the Convention was conceived (UNFCCC,2012)

2.1. THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION (WHC)

The World Heritage Convention was adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) General Conference in 1972 and came into force in 1975. It is a global body that is concerned with the protection of cultural and natural heritage.

The World Heritage Convention aims at promoting cooperation among nations to protect heritage around the world that is valued universally that its conservation is important for current and future generations. The Convention establishes a list of properties that have outstanding universal value, called the World Heritage List. These properties are part of the cultural and natural heritage of States that are Parties to the Convention (The WHC,2008).

The role and responsibility of member nations include;

· Identifying, protecting and conserving, World Heritage properties.

· Adopt a general policy that aims to give the cultural and natural heritage a function in the life of the community and to integrate the protection of that heritage into comprehensive planning programs.

· Undertake 'appropriate legal, scientific, technical, administrative and financial measures necessary for the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and rehabilitation of this heritage.

· Refrain from 'any deliberate measures which might damage, directly or indirectly, the cultural and natural heritage' of other Parties to the Convention, and to help other Parties in the identification and protection of their properties.

The World Heritage Convention is administered by a World Heritage Committee, which consists of 21 members elected from those States that are parties to the Convention. The Committee's main tasks are to (CRS, 1997):

decide on new sites to be included on the World Heritage List
discuss all matters relating to the implementation of the Convention
Consider requests for international assistance in terms of expert studies, training and equipment for protection.
advise State Parties on how they can ensure States meet their obligations under the Convention to protect World Heritage Properties
administer the World Heritage Fund which provides financial aid to countries on request.

The Convention seeks state parties’ consent prior to any 'in danger' listing; however in cases where a site is threatened and there is no effective government in place, the Committee may reach a decision on its own. Each time that the Committee makes a new entry on the List of World Heritage in Danger, it is required to publicise the entry immediately.

2.2. COMMISSION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (UN-CSD)

CSD was established in 1993 to ensure effective follow-up to the UNCED Conference, as well as to enhance international cooperation and rationalize the intergovernmental

decision-making capacity for the integration of environment and development issues and to examine the progress of the implementation of Agenda 21 at the national, regional and international levels. Agenda 21 contained the framework of action for achieving sustainable development. It was clustered into nine focus groups; a) critical elements of sustainability (including trade and environment, sustainable consumption, combating poverty, demographic dynamics, and sustainability); (b) financial resources and mechanisms;

(c) education, science, transfer of environmentally sound technologies, cooperation, and capacity building; (d) decision-making structures; (e) roles of major groups; (f) health, human settlements, and fresh water; (g) land desertification, forests, and biodiversity; (h) atmosphere, oceans, and all kinds of seas; and (i) toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes. These were considered to be the key areas to be addressed in order to achieve sustainable development.

CSD was mandated to:

· monitor progress on the implementation and activities related to the integration of environmental and developmental goals through analysis and evaluation of reports from governments,NGOs and other UN bodies;

· review the progress in the implementation of the commitments set forth in Agenda 21, including those related to the provision of financial resources and transfer of technology;

· review and monitor progress towards the target of 0.7% of GNP from developed countries for official development assistance (ODA);

· review the adequacy of funding and mechanisms, including efforts to reach the objectives agreed in chapter 33 of Agenda 21, including targets where applicable;

· receive and analyze relevant information from competent NGOs in the context of Agenda 21 implementation;

· consider, where appropriate, information regarding the progress made in the implementation of environmental conventions, which could be made available by the relevant conferences of parties;

· enhance dialogue with NGOs, the independent sector, and other entities outside the UN system, within the UN framework;

· provide recommendations to the General Assembly through ECOSOC, on the basis of an integrated consideration of the reports and issues related to the implementation of Agenda 21; and

· consider the results of the review to be conducted expeditiously by the Secretary-General of all recommendations of the Conference for capacity-building programmes, information networks, task forces and other mechanisms to support the integration of environment and development at regional and subregional levels. (Bigg and Dodds 1997: 20f; UN 1993b)in Madland(2005)

Other decisions adopted by the states concerned the CSD’s future role, programme of work and methods of work, and called on the CSD to;

· continue to provide a central forum for reviewing progress and for urging further implementation of Agenda 21;

· carry out its work in such a manner as to avoid unnecessary duplication and repetition of work undertaken by other relevant forums;

· make concerted efforts to attract greater involvement in its work of ministers and high-level national policy makers responsible for specific economic and social sectors;

· continue to provide a forum for the exchange of national experiences and best practices on the area of sustainable development;

· provide a forum for the exchange of experiences on regional and subregional initiatives and regional collaboration for sustainable development;

· establish closer interaction with international financial, development and trade institutions; and

· strengthen its interaction with representatives of major groups (Madland,2005)

2.3 WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (WCED)

The commission is also known as the Brundtland Commission. It was established in 1987 after a 22 member commission appointed by the UN secretary general published a report titled ‘Our Common Future’. It contained the UN perspective of the environment and development until 2002 and beyond (The Brundtland Report).

The report contains guidelines on how to achieve sustainable development. In their recommendation the report advanced strategies on how nations could achieve sustainable development. WCED outlined three elements of sustainable development and made the following recommendations.(Harris,2004)

Environmental protection

-natural resources can be conserved through utilizing them within their carrying capacity.

-The developed countries are to assist the developing countries with new technology on how to utilise resources sustainably.

-Restrictions should be put for developed nations on how much resources they can be allowed to exploit specifically forests.

-Developing nations should be allowed to exploit their natural resources to meet their basic needs but also to develop policy to guarantee sustainable levels of population.

Economic growth

-Developing nations should be assisted by developing nations to achieve growth of equal measure to that of developed nations. This is to be achieved by initiating development programs that reduce poverty in developing nations.

-Security issues to be resolved amicably and not by use of military. This was because areas with conflict face the highest environmental degradation.

Social Equity

-Developed nations should provide grants for developing nations to start programs in critical areas of concern such as Education, health sector and human settlements. It resulted in development of programs in the following areas UNICEF, UNHRC,UNHABITAT, UNDP and UNESCO all focused on raising the standards of living quality of life in developing countries.

2.3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

It is evident that the damage of the global environment is of public concern. Their causes and consequences are also known. And that several environmental institutions have been established to effectively respond to environmental challenges. To determine their successes need further research. However to effectively manage the global environmental problems, there is need to strengthen the capacity of existing institutions. This could include strengthening implementation process through capacity building and technological improvements at global, national and local levels; improve monitoring and assessment conducted independently and freely by qualified institutions; additional funding to support increased representation from national capitals of the developing countries; and lastly mobilise political will at global, national and local levels.